Developers: Yesim Capa Aydin, Jale Cakiroglu, & Hilal Sarikaya Developer: Edwin Maldonado Nieves
________________________________________________________________ The Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale If you want a copy of the long and short TSES and scoring directions, CLICK HERE Developers: Megan Tschannen-Moran, College of William and Mary Anita Woolfolk Hoy, the Ohio State University. Construct Validity For information the construct validity of the Teachers’ Sense of Teacher efficacy Scale, see: Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing and elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 783-805. Factor Analysis It is important to conduct a factor analysis to determine how your participants respond to the questions. We have consistently found three moderately correlated factors: Efficacy in Student Engagement, Efficacy in Instructional Practices, and Efficacy in Classroom Management, but at times the make up of the scales varies slightly. With preservice teachers we recommend that the full 24-item scale (or 12-item short form) be used, because the factor structure often is less distinct for these respondents. Subscale Scores To determine the Efficacy in Student Engagement, Efficacy in Instructional Practices, and Efficacy in Classroom Management subscale scores, we compute unweighted means of the items that load on each factor. Reliabilities In Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing and elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 783-805, the following were found:
1 Because this instrument was developed at the Ohio State University, it is sometimes referred to as the Ohio State Teacher Efficacy Scale (OSTES). We prefer the name, Teachers’ Sense of Efficacy Scale (TSES). Teacher Efficacy Scale (Gibson & Dembo: Long Form) If you want a copy of the 22-item TES, CLICK HERE Directions for Scoring the Teacher Efficacy Scale: Long Form 1. Construct validity For information the construct validity of the 22-item efficacy scale, see Woolfolk, A. E., & Hoy, W. K. (1990). Prospective teachers’ sense of efficacy and beliefs about control. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 81-91. 2. Factor Analysis When using the 22-item of the Teacher Efficacy Scale, it is important to conduct a factor analysis to determine how your subjects respond to the questions. We have consistently found two independent factors: Teaching Efficacy (TE) and Personal Efficacy (PE), but at times the make up of the scales varies slightly. For example, we often find that items 15 and 21 of the 22-item version do not load on either factor and must be dropped. 3. Reverse scoring: Given the 1=”strongly agree” to 6=”strongly disagree” format, if you want a high score on each scale to indicate strong sense of efficacy, then you must reverse the scoring for the Personal Efficacy items. Thus a “strongly agree” response to the statement, “When I try really, I can get through to most difficult students” must be reversed so that the respondent receives a score of 6 rather than 1. The reverse scored items on the 22-item version are: 1, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 14, 15*, 16, 18, 19, 22 *Note that item 15 is the only reversed item that is from the Teaching Efficacy, not Personal Efficacy scale. 4. TE and PE Scores: To determine the TE and PE scores, we compute unweighed means of the items that load .35 or higher on each respective factor. We do not recommend combining the TE and PE scores to compute a total score because the TE and PE scales represent independent factors. Teacher Efficacy Scale (Hoy & Woolfolk: Short Form) If you want a copy of the 10-item TES, CLICK HERE Directions for Scoring the Teacher Efficacy Scale: Short Form 1. Construct validity For information the construct validity of the 10-item efficacy scale, see Hoy, W. K., & Woolfolk, A. E. (1990). Organizational socialization of student teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 27, 279-300. 2. Factor Analysis It is important to conduct a factor analysis to determine how your subjects respond to the questions. We have consistently found two independent factors: Teaching Efficacy (TE) and Personal Efficacy (PE), but at times the make up of the scales varies slightly. 3. Reverse scoring: Given the 1=”strongly agree” to 6=”strongly disagree” format, if you want a high score on each scale to indicate strong sense of efficacy, then you must reverse the scoring for the Personal Efficacy items. Thus a “strongly agree” response to the statement, “When I try really, I can get through to most difficult students” must be reversed so that the respondent receives a score of 6 rather than 1. The reverse scored items on the 10-item version are: 3, 6, 7, 8, 9 4. TE and PE Scores: To determine the TE and PE scores, we compute unweighed means of the items that load .35 or higher on each respective factor. We do not recommend combining the TE and PE scores to compute a total score because the TE and PE scales represent independent factors. If you want a copy OSU Teacher Confidence Scale: CLICK HERE Directions for Scoring the Teaching Confidence Scale This scale was developed in order to devise a program-specific measure of efficacy. In an attempt to identify an appropriate level of specificity for assessing efficacy in our preservice teacher preparation program, we surveyed all the instructors who worked with the prospective teacher cohorts, asking the instructors what students should be able to do after completing the coursework. After removing redundancies, the result was a list of 32 teaching skills such as manage classrooms, evaluate student work, use cooperative learning approaches, teach basic concepts of fractions, and build learning in science on children’s intuitive understandings. We then designed a questionnaire, named the Teaching Confidence Scale (initially called the OSU Teaching Confidence Scale because it focused on skills in our program), that asked students to rate on a 6-point scale how confident they were in their ability to accomplish each skill, the higher the score, the more confident. We then calculated a total average score for each respondent. In our first study, based on the average score for the entire 32-item scale, the alpha coefficient of reliability was in the 95. In order to create a measure appropriate for your program, you would have to determine what students should be able to do after completing your requirements and then build a scale based on these expectations. 1. Construct validity For information the construct validity of the Teaching Confidence Scale, see Woolfolk Hoy, A., & Burke-Spero, R. (2005). Changes in teacher efficacy during the early years of teaching: A Comparison of four measures. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21, 343-356. . 2. Factor Analysis As described in Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2000, April), Changes in teacher efficacy during the early years of teaching, we performed a principal-axis factor analysis using Kaiser’s criterion of eigenvalues greater than 1 (Kaiser, 1974) in combination with Cattell’s scree test (Cattell, 1965) to determine the number of factors (Kim & Mueller, 1978). Three factors emerged and accounted for 70% of the variance. Some of the items loaded on two or all three factors, so these items were dropped and the remaining items analyzed into three factors with varimax rotation. The three factors seem to represent confidence to teach math and science, confidence to use instructional innovations, and confidence to manage classrooms. It is important to conduct a factor analysis to determine how your subjects respond to your questions. 1. Responsibility for Student Achievement For a copy of the Responsibility for Student Achievement scale, CLICK HERE. Shortly after the first Rand study was published, Guskey developed a 30-item instrument measuring Responsibility for Student Achievement (Guskey, 1981). For each item, participants were asked to distribute 100 percentage points between two alternatives, one stating that the event was caused by the teacher and the other stating that the event occurred because of factors outside the teacher’s immediate control. Consistent with explanations from attributional theory (Weiner, 1979, 1992, 1994), four types of causes were offered for success or failure: specific teaching abilities, the effort put into teaching, the task difficulty, and luck. Scores on the Responsibility for Student Achievement (RSA) yielded a measure of how much the teacher assumed responsibility for student outcomes in general, as well as two subscale scores indicating responsibility for student success (R+) and for student failure (R-). The 100-point scale proved cumbersome and in subsequent uses the scale was reduced to 10 points for the teacher to divide between the alternative explanations. When Guskey (1982, 1988) compared scores from the RSA with teacher efficacy (TE) as measured by the sum of the two Rand items, he found significant positive correlations between teacher efficacy and responsibility for both student success (R+) and student failure (R-). He reported strong intercorrelations ranging from.72- to .81 between overall responsibility and responsibility for student success and student failure while the subscales for student success and student failure were only weakly related (.20) or not at all (Guskey, 1981, 1988). Guskey asserted that positive and negative performance outcomes represent separate dimensions, not opposite ends of a single continuum, and that these dimensions operate independently in their influence on perceptions of efficacy (Guskey, 1987). In general, teachers assumed greater responsibility for positive results than for negative results, that is, they were more confident in their ability to influence positive outcomes than to prevent negative ones. Greater efficacy was related to a high level of confidence in teaching abilities on a measure of teaching self-concept (Guskey, 1984). In an extensive review of the research on teacher efficacy, no published studies were found in which other researchers had adopted this measure.
2. Teacher Locus of Control For a copy of the Teacher Locus of Control scale, CLICK HERE. At the same time as Guskey developed the RSA, Rose and Medway (1981) proposed a 28-item measure called the Teacher Locus of Control (TLC) in which teachers were asked to assign responsibility for student successes or failures by choosing between two competing explanations for the situations described. Half the items on the TLC describe situations of student success while the other half describe student failure. For each success situation, one explanation attributes the positive outcome internally to the teacher (I+) while the other assigns responsibility outside the teacher, usually to the students. Similarly, for each failure situation, one explanation gives an internal teacher attribution (I-) while the other blames external factors. Scores on the TLC have been weakly but significantly related to the individual Rand items (GTE and PTE) as well as to the sum of the two Rand items (TE) with correlations generally ranging from .11 to .41 (Coladarci , 1992; Parkay, Greenwood, Olejnik, & Proller, 1988). Rose and Medway (1981) found that the TLC was a better predictor of teacher behaviors than Rotter’s Internal-External (I-E) Scale, probably because it was more specific to a teaching context. For example, the TLC predicted teachers’ willingness to implement new instructional techniques, whereas Rotter’s I-E Scale did not. To further examine the TLC and the two Rand items, Greenwood, Olejnik, and Parkay (1990) dichotomized teachers’ scores on the two Rand questions and cross-partitioned them into four efficacy patterns. They found that teachers with high efficacy on both measures (I can, teachers can) had more internally-oriented scores on the TLC for both student success and student failure than teachers who scored low on both (I can’t, teachers can’t). This measure never received wide acceptance and has all but disappeared from view in the past decade.
3. The Webb Scales
At about the same time as the RSA and the TLC were being developed, a third group of researchers sought to expand the Rand efficacy questions to increase their reliability. The Webb Scale (Ashton, et al., 1982) was an attempt to extend the measure of teacher efficacy while maintaining a narrow conceptualization of the construct. To reduce the problem of social desirability bias, Webb and his colleagues used a forced-choice format with items matched for social desirability. They found that teachers who scored higher on the Webb Efficacy Scale evidenced fewer negative interactions (less negative affect) in their teaching style (Ashton, et al, 1982). This measure, however, never met with wide acceptance and we found no published work beyond the original study in which the scale was used.
For a copy of the Ashton Vignettes, CLICK HERE.
5. Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument For a copy of the Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument, CLICK HERE. Science educators have conducted extensive research on the effects of efficacy on science teaching and learning. Riggs and Enochs (1990) developed an instrument, based on the Gibson and Dembo approach, to measure efficacy of teaching science–the Science Teaching Efficacy Belief Instrument (STEBI). Consistent with Gibson and Dembo they have found two separate factors, one they called personal science teaching efficacy (PSTE) and a second factor they labeled science teaching outcome expectancy (STOE). The two factors are uncorrelated. Exploring an even greater level of specificity, Rubeck and Enochs (1991) distinguished chemistry teaching efficacy from science teaching efficacy. They found that among middle-school science teachers, personal science teaching efficacy (PTE for teaching science) was correlated with preference to teach science, and that chemistry teaching self-efficacy (PTE for teaching chemistry) was related to preference to teach chemistry. Chemistry teaching self-efficacy was related to science teaching self-efficacy, and science teaching self-efficacy was significantly higher than chemistry teaching self-efficacy. Science teaching self-efficacy was related to the teacher’s experiences taking science courses with laboratory experiences and to experience teaching science, while chemistry self-efficacy was related to chemistry course work involving lab experiences and chemistry teaching experience. This instrument has been used in several studies (see Enochs, Posnanski, & Hagedorn, 1999).
6. Bandura’s Teacher Efficacy Scale For a copy of the Bandura’s Teacher Efficacy scale, CLICK HERE. In the midst of the confusion about how to best measure teacher efficacy, an unpublished measure used by Bandura in his work on teacher efficacy has begun quietly circulating. Bandura (1997) pointed out that teachers’ sense of efficacy is not necessarily uniform across the many different types of tasks teachers are asked to perform, nor across different subject matter. In response, he constructed a 30-item instrument with seven subscales: efficacy to influence decision making, efficacy to influence school resources, instructional efficacy, disciplinary efficacy, efficacy to enlist parental involvement, efficacy to enlist community involvement, and efficacy to create a positive school climate. Each item is measured on a 9-point scale anchored with the notations: “nothing, very little, some influence, quite a bit, a great deal.” This measure attempts to provide a multi-faceted picture of teachers’ efficacy beliefs without becoming too narrow or specific. Unfortunately, reliability and validity information about the measure have not been available.
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